Extremist tendencies in socio-cultural relations | Political Economy

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The socio-cultural landscape of South Asia, once a vibrant tapestry of interwoven identities and shared traditions, has changed dramatically over the past few centuries. Historically characterized by diverse ethnic, linguistic and religious groups that live in relative harmony, the region has recently seen increasing trends of division, religious intolerance and extremism.

In India and Pakistan in particular, a rich history of harmonious traditions and coexistence has created an atmosphere of hostility, where the ‘other’ is often despised and feared. The main reason for this change can be traced to several interrelated factors, including the colonial legacy, the redefinition of identity in colonial states and the rise of political and religious extremism.

Historically, South Asia was known for its pluralistic traditions where Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and other local faiths coexisted and often intermingled. This convergence was particularly evident in the Bhakti and Sufi movements. The Bhakti movement, which emerged in the 7th century, was centered around personal devotion to God, transcending formal practices and offering an inclusive space for people from different social, religious, and caste backgrounds.

Saints like Kabir, Sant Takaram and Meera Bai not only promoted devotion but also emphasized the idea of ​​a universal divine presence that transcended social divisions. His work and philosophy united people across religious lines in a common vision of love and devotion.

The Sufi tradition in Islam similarly promoted Sufism and focused on a personal relationship with the divine, encouraging interfaith dialogue and inclusion. Sufi shrines became places for people of different religious and ethnic backgrounds — Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and others — to come together and find spiritual solace. Such a historical process of religious assimilation fostered a sense of collective identity and common humanity.

The advent of British colonial rule marked a turning point in this scenario. The colonial project sought to divide and categorize communities, imposing rigid categories that were previously fluid. The British administration institutionalized religious, ethnic and linguistic distinctions, turning the diverse cultural fabric of South Asia into a rigid system of division.

Sudipto Kaviraj, a political scientist, argues that this colonial practice of “counting” effectively redefined South Asian populations by classifying people into defined, mutually exclusive identities. Kaviraj’s concept of “enumerated communities” suggests that the colonial state did not merely observe but actively constructed and reinforced social distinctions, turning complex, multifaceted identities into static markers of difference.

The classification of communities by the colonial British administration was not an impartial process. Rather, it was a politically motivated act that reinforced imperial control. Communities were increasingly seen as isolated from each other and their differences were exaggerated to keep them apart.

Social interaction, once fluid and open, became more rigid and adversarial. The creation of these fixed identities by the colonial state made it difficult for communities to see each other as integrated or co-existing. The result was a binary opposition that pitted one group against the other, creating a sense of mutual exclusion.

This renewal of identity laid the foundation for the deep social and political divisions that would follow in the post-colonial era. When India and Pakistan emerged as independent nations in 1947, the newly formed states inherited the binary thinking fostered by the colonial system.

The Partition of India – an event marked by mass violence, forced displacement and deep trauma – was the most visible result of the division between Hindus and Muslims, two communities that had coexisted in the region for centuries. were Partition strengthened these identities and strengthened the sense of ‘self’ and ‘other’, as each nation-state came to define itself against the other.

In India, the rise of Hindu nationalism has created an environment in which Muslims, once woven into the fabric of the country, are increasingly seen as outsiders. Organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Bharatiya Janata Party have promoted the notion of India as a Hindu nation while marginalizing Muslims and other minority groups. This growing nationalism has resulted not only in sectarian violence, but also instilled a sense of alienation among Muslims, who find themselves alienated from a broader national identity.

In Pakistan, the emphasis on Islamic identity has marginalized religious minorities, including Hindus, Sikhs and Christians. The emphasis on a single Islamic identity has fueled sectarian violence, with different sects—such as Sunnis and Shiites—vying for dominance.

Pakistan’s education system, political rhetoric and public discourse often prioritize religious and ethnic identities as defining characteristics of citizenship, furthering divisions. In both countries, the rise of extremism has transformed cultural and religious identities into rigid categories, leaving little room for coexistence or understanding.

The growing influence of global jihadist ideologies has exacerbated these trends, as these ideologies frame the world in rigid, binary terms — ‘believers’ versus ‘infidels’, ‘us’ versus ‘them’. Such ideologies often reject pluralism, tolerance, and multiculturalism, seeing them as weaknesses. This ideological shift is linked to the process of colonial enumeration, which already divided communities into discrete, antagonistic groups. The ideological rigidity of both Hindu nationalism and political Islamism further erodes the region’s harmonious historical traditions and shared cultural practices.

Modern social theory, particularly through social identity theory and the concept of the “other,” can shed light on the process by which identity politics has evolved in South Asia. Social identity theory, as proposed by Henry Tajfel and John Turner, suggests that individuals derive their sense of self from their membership in social groups.

This categorization can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. When these social identities are perceived as threatened, they can lead to conflict. In South Asia, the increasingly polarized identities of Hindus and Muslims, reinforced by political and social forces, have fueled this dynamic.

Edward Said’s concept of the “other” further illuminates the situation. The other involves creating an identity that is defined against an outside, often hostile, group. In South Asia, the process of other-making is highly politicized, with religious and ethnic groups seeing each other as existential threats rather than potential partners in a shared social contract. This process has been particularly evident in both India and Pakistan, where religious nationalism has created competing identity narratives with little room for reconciliation.

The extremism that dominates much of South Asia today is a product of these historical and ideological processes. The harmonious traditions of Bhakti and Sufi thought, which once offered a path to understanding and unity, now seem remote in the face of the ideological forces that have torn the region apart. The concept of unity in diversity, which can be the basis of pluralistic social formation, has been forgotten. The binary of ‘self’ and ‘other’, reinforced by colonial and post-colonial dynamics, continues to shape the socio-cultural landscape, making coexistence increasingly difficult.

Looking ahead, the challenge for South Asia is to find a way to reimagine collective identity in a way that embraces diversity rather than promotes division. The region’s history of pluralism, tolerance and shared religious and cultural practices provides a foundation upon which new forms of coexistence can be built.

Only by moving beyond rigid, exclusive identities can the region hope to overcome its current divisions and pave the way for a more harmonious future. We must learn to live in harmony with people of diverse backgrounds by rediscovering sources of mutual understanding and cooperation that have long been forgotten. This includes fostering respect, empathy and shared values, while recognizing the rich diversity that each individual brings to the community.

By recognizing our common humanity and rebuilding the connections that once allowed for peaceful coexistence, we can create a society where differences are celebrated rather than feared, and where mutual respect leads to stronger, more inclusive communities. Be the foundation of construction.

The author is a professor in the Faculty of Liberal Arts at Beacon House National University, Lahore.