The history and relevance of oath-taking | Political Economy

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Taking a vow is a sign of a solemn vow or an appeal to divinity. It has been a familiar expression of truth, loyalty and moral responsibility. Traditionally, an oath was a sacred promise to a god or gods, which called for divine punishment for falsehood. In ancient societies, it was not merely dishonest to break one’s oath—it was sacrilegious, often equated with wrongdoing against the divine order itself.

Across civilizations, oaths have acquired deep religious and legal significance, serving as both moral anchors and legal instruments. In Judaism, biblical texts, such as Numbers 30:2, emphasize that “when a man makes a vow to the Lord, he does not break his word.” An oath bound the speaker to divine truth, and breaking it was a sin against both God and the community.

Among the Romans, citizens swore by the Jupiter lapis, symbolizing Jupiter’s authority as the divine guarantor of justice. Oath-swearing was punished by the gods and was often accompanied by elaborate rituals, such as killing a pig with a sacred stone to exact divine vengeance on divine avengers.

In the Hindu tradition, the prategya or vow had sacred value and was seen as the essence of honor and dharma. Kings and warriors such as Bhishma and Rama were especially revered because they kept their oaths even at great personal loss. To shed light on a promise was to lose dharma – the moral law the universe is believed to uphold.

In ancient Greece, oaths were considered the moral foundation of the political order. “It is the oath that holds the democracy together,” declared Lycurgus, reflecting the belief that communal trust and law relied on the truth sworn to God. Among the Germanic and Norse peoples, the oath was central to warrior and feudal culture. Knights, kings and retainers swore fealties on swords, sacred boars or colors believed to embody a divine presence. Honor was inseparable from one’s sworn word.

In Islamic history, oath-taking (yamin or qasam) has a central place in personal conduct, lineal governance. The Qur’an treated oath-taking with great seriousness, recognizing its spiritual and social implications. As stated in Surah Al-Mu’idah (5:89): “God does not hold you accountable for your unintentional oaths, but He will hold you accountable for the oaths you have sworn with all your heart.”

This verse makes a distinction between casual speech and deliberate vows. A solemn oath binds the believer before God, the breach of which (noth al-yamin) requires expiation (expiation)—either by feeding or clothing ten poor people, freeing a slave from fasting for three days.

Historically, oaths were important in Islamic governance and social order. During the time of Prophet Muhammad a (peace be upon him), the Bayt – Oath of Allegiance was a solemn covenant between the Prophet and his followers, pledging faith, obedience and defense of the Muslim community. The Bayt al-Rizwan of 628 CE, who took the oath under a tree near Hudaybiyah, became a defining moment of collective loyalty in early Islamic history.

Oaths were also used in Islamic jurisprudence to determine the truth when evidence was lacking. In cases of dispute, a litigant may swear an oath (Yamin al-Qasam) to confirm his statement before a qazi (judge). Known as the Yameen Alghamus or “Drowning Oath,” it is considered a grave sin that “casts its taker in hell,” according to prophetic traditions.

During caliphates and empires, rulers and officials took oaths on the Qur’an, and invoked divine accountability for justice and governance. Breaking such an oath can lead to collection, exile or public infamy. The Islamic understanding of oath-taking combined legal force, moral obligation, and spiritual accountability—creating a comprehensive moral system where speech, belief, and action were intertwined.

Swearing, although different in form, has appeared in various symbolic ways throughout history, each reflecting the values of its time. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, oaths were sworn before idols or sacred rivers, often accompanied by curses. Egyptian judges swore to Pharaoh and Maat, the goddess of truth.

In the Greek and Roman worlds, citizens placed their hands on sacred stones, sacrifices, or altars. Along with the practice of swearing oaths by the gods, there were also rituals of empowerment or blood. Medieval Europe saw kings swear fealty on relics or the Bible and knights pledging their honor on swords or crosses – which could lead to pardons.

Among the Norse and Germanic tribes, animal symbols such as the brigerfl (sacred cup) or the horse were sworn to seal political and martial bonds. In Islamic and Middle Eastern societies, the Qur’an served as the ultimate symbol of truth. Touching it while taking an oath adds spiritual weight to one’s words. In modern democracies, oaths are now taken by rings, flags or simply verbal affirmations.

With the rise of secularism and constitutional rule, the sacred aura surrounding the oath gradually diminished. The Enlightenment replaced the divine witness with rational conscience and law with religion as the guarantor of truth.

In Britain, reforms in the 19th century allowed citizens to make affirmations instead of religious oaths, and freedom of conscience was recognized. Similarly, the United States Constitution allows for both oaths and affirmations, ensuring inclusion for atheists and non-religious people.

Many European and Commonwealth countries have followed suit, in terms of secularizing forms of public life. Today, officials swear allegiance not to kings or gods, but to circles and nations. Thus the meaning of truth shifted from divine revelation to civic responsibility. It is a change that mirrors the moral evolution of humanity.

Despite their enduring customs, oaths are often violated in modern political and judicial systems. In countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, India, Pakistan, and several Latin American states, many public officials swear corruption or constitutional oaths only to later be violated for embezzlement or abuse of office.

Even in Western democracies, misunderstandings and political dishonesty—from the Watergate scandal in the United States to parliamentary controversies in the United Kingdom—have eroded public confidence in sworn declarations. Historically, swearing resulted in divine wrath or sectarian punishment.

In ancient Rome, miscreants faced the vengeance of the gods. In medieval Christianity, they could lose lands and titles. In Islamic law, they were forced to seek forgiveness through infidelity or face eternal punishment. In the modern world, perjury remains a legal crime, but the moral gravity once associated with perjury has weakened as the faith has merely formally abolished the land.

Yet, even in modern times, oaths are central to governance, law, medicine and the military. Judges, doctors, presidents, and soldiers continue to swear allegiance or service, although the authority they invoke is now civil rather than divine. For example, the Hippocratic Oath binds public officials to secular codes of ethics and oaths of office to constitutional principles rather than sacred law.

The persistence of oath-taking, even in times of doubt, reflects an enduring human need for moral reassurance. Whether sworn by the Qur’an, a constitution, or one’s own conscience, an oath affirms that truth and duty are above self-interest and self-interest.

From the sacred vows of antiquity to the secular affirmations of modernity, the history of oath-taking charts humanity’s journey from divine accountability to civic responsibility. Once enforced by fear of the gods, today oaths rely on the integrity of individuals and the moral authority of institutions. Although oath-taking is increasingly violated in the political and legal arenas, the ritual persists because it is a timeless ideal—that truth, loyalty, and justice depend on the sanctity of one’s word.

The author is a professor in the Faculty of Liberal Arts at Beacon House National University, Lahore